Which of the Following Can Be Considered a Product Decision?
Chapter eight: Product Decisions
Affiliate Objectives
Construction Of The Chapter
Bones concepts
Production design
Product decisions
Branding and trademarks
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions
Review Question Answers
References
Bibliography
Decisions regarding the product, price, promotion and distribution channels are decisions on the elements of the "marketing mix". It can be argued that production decisions are probably the most crucial as the product is the very paradigm of marketing planning. Errors in product decisions are legion. These can include the imposition of a global standardised production where information technology is extraneous, for example big horsepower tractors may be totally unsuitable for areas where small-scale scale farming exists and where incomes are low; devolving decisions to affiliated countries which may let quality slip; and the attempt to sell products into a land without cognisance of cultural adaptation needs. The decision whether to sell globally standardised or adapted products is too simplistic for today's market place. Many product decisions lie between these two extremes. Cognisance has also to be taken of the stage in the international life cycle, the organisation's own product portfolio, its strengths and weaknesses and its global objectives. Unfortunately, most developing countries are in no position to compete on the world stage with many manufactured value-added products. Quality, or lack of it, is often the major letdown. As indicated earlier, most developing countries are likely to be exporting raw materials or basic and high value agricultural produce for some fourth dimension to come.
Chapter Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are
· To examine the basic concepts of "the product" and the importance of this concept in marketing· To give an understanding of the features of product design and the factors which shape the "standardisation" versus "adaptation" decisions
· To draw the production process and how value tin can be added in the process
· To describe the major product strategies.
Structure Of The Chapter
The chapter starts by examining the basic concepts of the "product" including its physical (or objective) features and its image (or subjective) features. Once the product is put into the blueprint stage based on consumer research, then a decision has to exist fabricated on its form - either globally standardised or adapted to local weather. Of course, with many agricultural cash and food crops its form may stay the same (standard), for example an orange, or it may be adapted (frozen orange juice) to meet different market needs and weather condition. The affiliate concludes by looking at the dissimilar types of product strategies, varying from a global approach to a micro-marketing approach at national level.
Basic concepts
A product can exist defined as a drove of physical, service and symbolic attributes which yield satisfaction or benefits to a user or buyer. A product is a combination of physical attributes say, size and shape; and subjective attributes say image or "quality". A client purchases on both dimensions. As cited before, an avocado pear is similar the world over in terms of concrete characteristics, merely in one case the label CARMEL, for example, is put on information technology, the production'due south physical properties are enhanced by the image CARMEL creates. In "postmodernisation" information technology is increasingly of import that the production fulfills the image which the producer is wishing to project. This may involve organisations producing symbolic offerings represented by meaning laden products that hunt stimulation-loving consumers who seek experience - producing situations. So, for example, selling mineral h2o may not exist plenty. It may have to be "Antarctic" in source, and flavoured. This opens up a wealth of new marketing opportunities for producers.
A product's physical properties are characterised the same the world over. They tin can be convenience or shopping appurtenances or durables and nondurables; yet, one can classify products according to their degree of potential for global marketing:
i) local products - seen equally but suitable in one single market.ii) international products - seen equally having extension potential into other markets.
iii) multinational products - products adjusted to the perceived unique characteristics of national markets.
iv) global products - products designed to meet global segments.
Quality, method of operation or apply and maintenance (if necessary) are catchwords in international marketing. A failure to maintain these will lead to consumer dissatisfaction. This is typified past agricultural mechanism where the lack of spares and/or strange exchange can lead to lengthy downtimes. It is becoming increasingly important to maintain quality products based on the ISO 9000 standard, every bit a prerequisite to export marketing.
Consumer behavior or perceptions also touch on the "world brand" concept. Globe brands are based on the same strategic principles, same positioning and aforementioned marketing mix but there may exist changes in message or other paradigm. World brands in agriculture are legion. In fertilizers, brands like Norsk Hydro are universal; in tractors, Massey Ferguson; in soups, Heinz; in tobacco, BAT; in chemicals, Bayer. These world brand names have been built up over the years with great investments in marketing and production. Few world brands, withal, have originated from developing countries. This is inappreciably surprising given the lack of resources. In some markets product saturation has been reached, nevertheless surprisingly the same production may not have reached saturation in other similar markets. Whilst France has long been saturated by avocadoes, the Great britain market is not yet, hence raising the opportunity to enter deeper into this market.
Product design
Changes in blueprint are largely dictated by whether they would improve the prospects of greater sales, and this, over the accompanying costs. Changes in design are also subject to cultural pressures. The more civilization-bound the product is, for instance food, the more adaptation is necessary. Nigh products fall in between the spectrum of "standardisation" to "adaptation" extremes. The application the product is put to likewise affects the design. In the UK, railway engines were designed from the outset to be sophisticated because of the degree of competition, but in the U.s. this was not the case. In gild to burn the abundant wood and move the prairie droppings, big smoke stacks and cowcatchers were necessary. In agricultural implements a mechanised cultivator may be a convenience detail in a UK garden, but in Bharat and Africa it may exist essential equipment. Equally stated earlier "perceptions" of the production'southward benefits may also dictate the blueprint. A refrigerator in Africa is a very necessary and functional detail, kept in the kitchen or the bar. In Mexico, the same item is a condition symbol and, therefore, kept in the living room.
Factors encouraging standardisation are:
i) economies of scale in production and marketing
ii) consumer mobility - the more consumers travel the more is the demand
iii) technology
4) paradigm, for instance "Japanese", "made in".
The latter tin can be a factor both to assist or to hinder global marketing development. Nagashima1 (1977) found the "fabricated in USA" paradigm has lost ground to the "made in Nippon" prototype. In some cases "strange fabricated" gives advantage over domestic products. In Republic of zimbabwe one sees many advertisements for "imported", which gives the product advertised a perceived reward over domestic products. Ofttimes a price premium is charged to reinforce the "imported ways quality" paradigm. If the foreign source is negative in event, attempts are made to disguise or hide the fact through, say, packaging or labelling. Mexicans are loathe to have products from Brazil. By putting a "fabricated in elsewhere" label on the production this tin exist overcome, provided the products are manufactured elsewhere even though its company mayhap Brazilian.
Factors encouraging adaptation are:
i) Differing usage conditions. These may exist due to climate, skills, level of literacy, civilization or physical weather condition. Maize, for case, would never sell in Europe rolled and milled as in Africa. It is just eaten whole, on or off the cob. In Zimbabwe, kapenta fish can be used as a savor, but wilt always be eaten equally a "starter" to a meal in the developed countries.ii) General market factors - incomes, tastes etc. Canned asparagus may be very affordable in the adult world, merely may not sell well in the developing world.
iii) Authorities - taxation, import quotas, non tariff barriers, labelling, health requirements. Non tariff barriers are an attempt, despite their supposed impartiality, at restricting or eliminating competition. A adept example of this is the Florida tomato growers, cited earlier, who successfully got the Us Department of Agriculture to effect regulations establishing a minimum size of tomatoes marketed in the United States. The effect of this was to eliminate the Mexican love apple manufacture which grew a tomato that fell under the minimum size specified. Some non-tariff barriers may be legitimate attempts to protect the consumer, for example the ever stricter restrictions on horticultural produce insecticides and pesticides use may cause African growers a headache, but they are accounted to exist for the public good.
4) History. Sometimes, as a issue of colonialism, production facilities have been established overseas. Eastern and Southern Africa is littered with examples. In Kenya, the tea industry is a colonial legacy, as is the sugar industry of Zimbabwe and the coffee industry of Republic of malaŵi. These facilities take long been adapted to local weather.
v) Financial considerations. In order to maximise sales or profits the organisation may have no choice simply to adapt its products to local conditions.
half-dozen) Pressure. Sometimes, as in the case of the EU, suppliers are forced to adapt to the rules and regulations imposed on them if they wish to enter into the marketplace.
Production decisions
In decisions on producing or providing products and services in the international market it is essential that the production of the production or service is well planned and coordinated, both inside and with other functional area of the business firm, particularly marketing. For example, in horticulture, it is essential that any supplier or any of his "outgrower" (sub-contractor) tin can supply what he says he tin can. This is especially vital when contracts for supply are finalised, every bit failure to supply could incur large penalties. The main elements to consider are the product process itself, specifications, culture, the concrete product, packaging, labelling, branding, warranty and service.
Product process
The key question is, can we ensure continuity of supply? In manufactured products this may include decisions on the type of manufacturing process - artisanal, job, batch, menstruation line or group engineering. Nevertheless in many agricultural bolt factors like seasonality, perishability and supply and need have to be taken into consideration. Table 8.1 gives a checklist of questions on product requirements for horticultural products equally an example6
Table 8.1 Checklist of questions on product requirements by market
| Existing sources of supply | Recommendations for new suppliers, or increased supply |
| Current important suppliers? | Best period of supply? Grading and quality standards: *acceptable size ranges? Upkeep gross and net prices? |
Quantity and quality of horticultural crops are affected by a number of things. These include input supplies (or lack of them), finance and credit availability, variety (choice), sowing dates, product range and investment advice. Many of these items will exist catered for in the contract of supply.
Specification
Specification is very of import in agricultural products. Some markets will not take produce unless it is within their specification. Specifications are often set past the customer, just agents, standard authorities (like the EU or ITC Geneva) and trade associations tin can be useful sources. Quality requirements often vary considerably. In the Middle Eastward, carmine apples are preferred over green apples. In one example French red apples, well boxed, are sold at 55 dinars per box, whilst not so attractive Iranian greens are sold for 28 dinars per box. In export the quality standards are set by the importer. In Africa, Maritim (1991)2, found, mostly, that in that location are no consistent standards for product quality and grading, making information technology difficult to exercise international trade regionally.
Culture
Production packaging, labeling, physical characteristics and marketing have to adapt to the cultural requirements when necessary. Religion, values, aesthetics, linguistic communication and fabric culture all affect production decisions. Furnishings of culture on production decisions have been dealt with already in chapter three.
Physical product
The physical product is made up of a variety of elements. These elements include the physical product and the subjective image of the product. Consumers are looking for benefits and these must be conveyed in the total product packet. Concrete characteristics include range, shape, size, color, quality, quantity and compatibility. Subjective attributes are adamant by advertising, self prototype, labelling and packaging. In manufacturing or selling produce, cognisance has to be taken of toll and country legal requirements.
Again a number of these characteristics is governed by the customer or agent. For case, in beefiness products sold to the Eu there are very strict quality requirements to be observed. In fish products, the Japanese need more than "exotic" types than, say, would be sold in the Britain. None of the dried fish products produced past the Zambians on Lake Kariba, and sold into the Lusaka market, would ever pass the hygiene laws if sold internationally. In sophisticated markets like seeds, the diversity and range is so large that constant watch has to be kept on the new strains and varieties in order to be competitive.
Packaging
Packaging serves many purposes. Information technology protects the product from damage which could be incurred in handling and transportation and also has a promotional aspect. It tin exist very expensive. Size, unit type, weight and volume are very important in packaging. For shipping cargo the packet needs to be low-cal but stiff, for body of water cargo containers are oftentimes the best grade. The client may likewise decide the best grade of packaging. In horticultural produce, the developed countries often demand blister packs for mangetouts, beans, strawberries and so on, whilst for products like pineapples a bounding main container may suffice. Costs of packaging have always to be weighed against the advantage gained by information technology.
Increasingly, environmental aspects are coming into play. Packaging which is non-degradable - plastic, for example - is less in demanded. Bio-degradable, recyclable, reusable packaging is now the order of the solar day. This can be both expensive and demanding for many developing countries.
Labelling
Labelling not merely serves to express the contents of the production, but may be promotional (symbols for instance Cashel Valley Zimbabwe; HJ Heinz, Africafe, Tanzania). The EU is now putting very stringent regulations in force on labelling, even to the degree that the pesticides and insecticides used on horticultural produce have to be listed. This could be very demanding for producers, especially pocket-sized scale, ones where product techniques may not exist standardised. Regime labelling regulations vary from land to state. Bar codes are not widespread in Africa, simply do assist in stock control. Labels may take to be multilingual, specially if the production is a world make. Translation could exist a problem with many words being translated with difficulty. Again labelling is expensive, and in promotion terms not-standard labels are more expensive than standard ones. Requirements for crate labelling, etc. for international transportation will be dealt with later under documentation.
Branding and trademarks
As mentioned in chapter four, it is difficult to protect a trademark or make, unless all countries are members of a convention. Make "piracy" is widespread in many developing countries.
Other aspects of branding include the promotional aspects. A family brand of products under the Zeneca (ex ICI) label or Sterling Wellness are likely to exist recognised worldwide, and hence raise the "subjective" production characteristics.
Warranty
Many large value agricultural products similar mechanism require warranties. Unfortunately non everyone upholds them. It is common practice in Africa that if the original equipment has not been bought through an authorised dealer in the land, that dealer refuses to honour the warranty. This is unfortunate, because not only may the equipment have been legitimately bought overseas, it also really builds up consumer resistance to the dealer. When the consumer is eventually offered a selection, the reticent. dealer will suffer. For example when new dealers spring up.
Case eight.i Cotton fiber Product/Marketing Interface
Spinners
Machines are highly flexible, that is they can commonly switch to a variety of yarn requirements. The machines are geared to loftier production, are automated and are of a precision for constant quality provision. There are strict process controls and congenital - in quality control. Poor raw cloth, especially when contaminated with metal particles, damages opening mills, grid knives, fans and card wearable. Previous devices employed to remove these (magnets) are becoming less effective. The consequences are harm in the blowroom and carding and danger of fire. Quality is therefore defined as backdrop of the end employ (article of clothing etc.), efficiency of weaving and knitting and the efficient running of the spinning plant. Spinners require raw cotton which is free of trash, grit, sugar and honey dew contamination, seed coats, bark and foreign fibres and, will not nep the textile. Farther requirements are a sure length (could be short, medium or long), uniformity of length, strength, fineness, maturity and a sure elongation and colour.
Suppliers
In gild to meet these high quality demands, the growers have to ensure that the production, picking and ginning is of a very loftier standard.
Cotton grading
The Liverpool Cotton exchange, for one, relied on the skills of its experts to manually classify raw fibre purchases for its clients. It even so holds the "standards" for length, colour and trash content. Equally well as the demands of modem machinery, the lack of standardised measuring and cotton classification procedures has resulted in commercial disharmonize and legal disputes nearly the true nature of traded cotton. Now, figurer based loftier book instrument listing systems of raw cotton (HVI systems) are available. The system tin can handle big numbers of bales, reduce variation in nomenclature and the need for highly trained bate classifiers.
For cotton exporters the system offers the post-obit advantages:
· enhanced objectivity in classification
· improve communication if similar systems are used by sellers or buyers
· reduced conflict and demand for mediation
· enhanced competitiveness against synthetic fibres
· improved integration with modern spinning machines
· reduced costs on preparation of experts and in measuring time.
The arrangement can process 2000 bales per day and give a printout on the seven parameters of grading. These include length and length uniformity, strength and elongation, micronaire or fineness, leaf and colour. Manufacturers include SPINLAR INC. of Knoxville, Us.
Service
In agricultural machinery, processing equipment and other items which are of substantial value and technology, service is a prerequisite. In selling to many developing countries, manufacturers have institute their negotiations at stake due to the poor back-up service. Often, this is no fault of the agent, benefactor or dealer in the foreign land, only due to exchange regulations, which make obtaining spare parts hard. Many organisations attempt to become around this by insisting that a Third World heir-apparent purchases a percentage of parts on order with the original items. Centrolineal to this trouble is the poor quality of service due to bereft training. Good original equipment manufacturers will insist on preparation and updating as part of the agency understanding. In order to illustrate the to a higher place points, cotton fiber tin can be used as an instance. Cotton is a major foreign exchange earner for Zimbabwe. In 1990/91, 52,000 tonnes were sold overseas at a value of Zim$ 238 one thousand thousand. As the spinners, specially those in the export marketplace, are in a highly competitive industry, information technology is essential that the raw cloth is as make clean as possible. Also today'south spinning equipment is highly technical and the spinner wishes to avert costly breakdowns past all means.
Product strategies
There are five major production strategies in international marketing.
Product communications extension
This strategy is very low cost and merely takes the aforementioned product and communication strategy into other markets. However it can exist risky if misjudgments are fabricated. For example CPC International believed the US consumer would accept to dry out soups, which dominate the European market. It did not work.
Extended product - communications adaptation
If the product basically fits the unlike needs or segments of a marketplace it may need an adjustment in marketing communications simply. Once again this is a low price strategy, but different production functions have to exist identified and a suitable communications mix developed.
Product adaptation - communications extension
The product is adapted to fit usage conditions just the communication stays the same. The assumption is that the product volition serve the same office in foreign markets under different usage atmospheric condition.
Production adaptation - communications accommodation
Both product and advice strategies need attention to fit the peculiar need of the market place.
Production invention
This needs a totally new idea to fit the sectional conditions of the market. This is very much a strategy which could exist ideal in a Third World situation. The development costs may be high, only the advantages are too very high.
Table 8.2 summarises the strategic alternatives with examples4.
The choice of strategy will depend on the most advisable production/market analysis and is a office of the production itself defined in terms of the office or demand information technology serves, the marketplace defined in terms of the weather under which the product is used, the preferences of the potential customers and the ability to buy the product in question, and the costs of adaptation and industry to the company considering these product - communications approaches.
Table viii.ii International strategic alternatives
| Product strategy | Communications strategy | Product/functions Met | Conditions of product utilise | Examples |
| ane Extension | Extension | Same | Same | Pepsi |
| two Extension | Adaptation | Different | Same | Soups |
| 3 Adaptation | Extension | Same | Different | Agriculture chemicals |
| 4 Adaptation | Adaptation | Different | Unlike | Farm implements |
| five Invention | New | Same | - | Tyson turbine h2o pump |
| Thailand tuna |
CASE 8.2. Thailand Tuna
The case of Thai Tuna is a adept instance of the fifth product strategy culling. In 1980 globe canned tuna imports stood at some 110,000 tons, world consumption was stagnant, prices depressed and ascension operating costs were leading to the closure of the tuna processing facilities in the U.s.a., Nippon and Europe. However, up to 1990, globe tuna imports quadrupled to 437,000 tons with big scale canning operations shifting to several lower cost developing countries.
No country experienced the dramatic development more than than Thailand. In 1980 it did not export ane unmarried tin. In 1990, Thailand exported 225,000 tons (51% of globe market share) with a gross value in 1989 of US$ 537 meg. The Thai industry evolution was rapid and interesting because it was based on imported raw materials. Tuna landings past Thai vessels rarely exceeded 30,000 tons, whilst its imports of foreign tuna (mostly skipjack) has increased past the 250,000 ton mark. The reason for this was the shift in line-fishing patterns. Historically the eastern Atlantic and Pacific were the almost important areas but in the 1970s, U.s.a. vessels began to exploit the tuna shoals of the Western Pacific and European vessels the Indian Bounding main. The consequence was the increase of landings from ane,7 million tons in 1980 to ii,v one thousand thousand tons in 1988, but a meaning drop in prices accompanied this increase. Thailand was in a position to capitalise on these new low toll suppliers and in the early to mid 1980s several fruit and vegetable canners and other entrepreneurs invested in large mod processing facilities specially for fish. Their operating costs were kept low past efficient direction, low cost labour, backward integration into production and the efficient employ of by products from processing. This was basically an "invention" production strategy. In gild to proceeds access to and capitalise on the expanding markets in the U.s. and Europe (except France which favoured Francophone African suppliers) Thai canners entered into packaging arrangements with American and European firms. Latter, Thailand'southward largest processor look over the third largest tuna canner in the US, enabling it to take reward of the llatter's exclusive distribution network and well-established brand names.
Every bit well equally the above, organisations have also to consider the international product life cycle (described in section one) and the "fit" of the strategy into the visitor's portfolio, strengths and weaknesses. In launching new products into international markets, the international product life cycle concept is crucial. Comparative analysis is a very useful technique also for new production introduction. The idea behind this concept is that if underlying atmospheric condition existing in 1 country are like to those in another then there is a likelihood of a product existence successfully introduced. On the other hand, once more as indicated in chapter one, the international life bike can work against domestic producers. The introduction of a second country product into a first country which has had a "closed economy" can sometimes kill off local product if that local producer cannot respond to the imported product's competitiveness. The case of Sunsplash Zimbabwe is an example.
Product decisions epitomise marketing planning and are the manifestation of marketing strategy. These decisions are not to be taken lightly. The end consumer and channel considerations have to be taken into account and the product extended or adapted accordingly.
Instance 8.3 Imported Juice Helps To Kill Off Sunsplash
A fruit juice processor, Sunsplash, has stopped production of juices post-obit declining business, leaving 15 people without employment.
Company director Mr. Michael Willmore said production ceased at the stop of concluding calendar month, adding that the Sunsplash range of fruit juices would exist available over the next 4 months until remaining stocks had been exhausted.
The mill had, since its establishment in 1984, processed a diverseness of fruit juices for the Zimbabwean market.
Mr. Willmore said loftier transport costs as well as contest from imported products had affected the viability of the company, which had been established in Masvingo in response to Authorities calls for industry to decentralise.
"The introduction of (imported) products into the Zimbabwean market chop-chop eroded our marketplace share from over ane million litres to a mere 450 000 litres annually. By uncomplicated statement of fact, Sunsplash was not viable on the reduced volume."
He also criticised the lack of incentives in Masvingo, specially for new investors.
*In my stance, both cardinal government and local municipal authorities will have to offer industries more attractive incentives to invest En Masvingo", he said.
He said incentives such as lax exemptions offered at growth points and Export Processing Zones (EPZ) would he more than ideal for Masvingo because it was well located from the Mozambican port of Beira as well as S Africa.
This fabricated the town an ideal location for EPZs.
Mr. Willmore, however, added that the demise of Sunsplash was more complicated than more than proximity to major markets.
"The visitor desperately needed to make me transition to aseptic packaging, a technology which enables fruit juices to be processed without the use of chemic preservatives white providing an unrefrigerated shell life of six months,
The innovation would have greatly enhanced the production and provided export potential, only regrettably, cashflow constraints within our belongings company (Afdis), combined with high interest rates, fabricated the $five,8 meg investment unviable".
Chapter Summary
The marketing mix, which is the means by which an organization reaches its target market, is made upwards of product, pricing, distribution, promotion and people decisions. These are usually shortened to the anacronym "5P'due south". Product decisions revolve around decisions regarding the concrete product (size, style, specification, etc.) and product line management.
Product decisions are based on how much the organisation has to adjust the production on the standardisation - adaptation continuum to differing market place conditions. This results in the development of 5 basic strategic alternatives - extension; extension, adaptation; adaptation, extension; adaptation and invention. Extension is the nearest to a standardised product, communications strategy and Invention at the other stop of the continuum, that is, an adaptation strategy. The more adaptive the policy the more plush it will be for the organisation.
Central Terms
| Adaptation | Local products | Product strategies |
| Global products | Multinational products | Standardisation |
| International products | Production | - |
Review Questions
1. What factors are of import in the standardisation versus adaptation product decision process?
2. Depict the principle elements of "the product". Requite examples.
3. Describe, with examples, the 5 major product strategies available to global marketers.
Review Question Answers
one. Factors
a) Standardisation- Economies of scale
- Production and Marketing
- Consumer mobility
- Technology
- Image, e.g. "Made in Japan"b) Adaptation
- Differing usage conditions
- Market factors
- Authorities - taxation, quotas etc.
- History e.k. colonialism
- Financial considerations
- Pressure, e.g. regulations
2. Production
Specification, e.chiliad. quality standards, style, colour, shape. Image, e.g. advertising
- Advert
- Labelling
- Branding
- Trademark
- Warranty
- Service
3. Product strategies
· Product communications extension eastward.g. Pepsi
· Extended production, communications accommodation, due east.thou. soups
· Production adaptation, communications extension, e.thousand. agrochemicals
· Product adaptation, communications adaptation, due east.g. farm implements
· Product invention, eastward.g. Thai tuna
References
1. Nagashima A., A comparative "Made - In Product Prototype Survey Among Japanese Dimension Sound of Marketing", July 1977 pp. 95-100.
2. Maritim H., "Post Harvest Treatment Produce in Eastern and Southern Africa" in South. Carter (Ed) "Horticultural Marketing. Proceedings of the Audio Regional Workshop on Horticultural Marketing" 1991, pp. 187-127.
3. Bischofberger, J., "What Spinners Desire. In Training Manual on Cotton Trading Operations", International Trade Centre UNCTAD/GATT, Geneva, 1989, pp 31-53.
iv. Jaffee S. (1993) "Exporting High Value Added Bolt". "Earth Banking company Discussion Paper" 198, the World Bank, Washington
5. Sunsplash. "Business Herald", Thursdays, January nineteen 1995
Bibliography
vi. Dixie, G.B.R., "Horticultural Marketing", FAO Agronomical Services Bulletin 76,1989.
7. Keegan, W.J.," Global Marketing Management", Prentice Hall, 1989.
Source: https://www.fao.org/3/w5973e/w5973e0c.htm
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